An investigation of the impact response of European ash and sycamore maple
Keywords:
Ash, Maple, Impact test, digital image correlation method,Abstract
European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) and sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) have long historical applications in structural components requiring high impact resistance, yet a detailed characterization of their full-field dynamic strain behavior remains limited. This study investigates the impact bending responses of both species using three-point drop-weight impact tests integrated with high-speed recording (10,000 frames per second) and the digital image correlation (DIC) method. The distinct and interactive effects of moisture content (MC) and growth-ring orientation (GO) were evaluated across key mechanical metrics: maximum deflection of the beam up to crack initiation, maximum normal strain, maximum reaction force (Fmax), total absorbed energy, and impact bending strength (IBS). The IBS of ash and maple were 6.3 and 4.5 J/cm², respectively, while their maximum deflection was 8.5 and 8.6 mm, respectively. Two-way ANOVA revealed highly species-specific sensitivities to environmental and structural factors. For European ash, unlike Fmax, other results such as maximum deflection, maximum strain, total absorbed energy, and IBS were not significantly altered by MC or GO. Conversely, sycamore maple exhibited highly isotropic behavior regarding GO, but it showed to be dependent on the MC. MC significantly enhanced the maximum deflection and maximum normal strain of maple, while triggering a severe 64% reduction in Fmax. The force-time charts of the tests showed a distinct structural transition from a rigid, brittle fracture mode at low moisture levels to a highly dampening, ductile deformation mode once exceeding the fiber saturation point (FSP). These findings highlight the strong effect of species type on the impact mechanics, providing a robust experimental dataset essential for developing and validating analytical and finite element models.
References
Acuña L, Sepliarsky F, Spavento E, Martínez RD, Balmori JA (2020) Modelling of impact falling ball test response on solid and engineered wood flooring of two Eucalyptus species. Forests 11(9):933. https://www.mdpi.com/808558
Baumann G, Brandner R, Müller U, Stadlmann A, Feist F (2021) A comparative study on the temperature effect of solid birch wood and solid beech wood under impact loading. Materials 14(24):7616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247616
Bodziarczyk J, Lesiński J (2011) Sycamore maple forests in Poland-a review. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20123105506
Borůvka V, Novák D, Šedivka P (2020) Comparison and analysis of radial and tangential bending of softwood and hardwood at static and dynamic loading. Forests 11(8):896. https://www.mdpi.com/801256
Boshier D, Cordero J, Harris S, Pannell J, Rendell S, Savill P, Stewart J, Cundall N, Hubert J, Samuel S et al. (2005) Ash species in Europe: biological characteristics and practical guidelines for sustainable use. Oxford: Department of Plant Sciences, Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford.
Bragov A, Igumnov L, dell’Isola F, Konstantinov A, Lomunov A, Iuzhina T (2020) Dynamic testing of lime-tree (Tilia Europoea) and pine (Pinaceae) for wood model identification. Materials 13(22):5261. https://www.mdpi.com/897314
Brischke C (2017) Interrelationship between static a Nd dynamic strength properties of wood and its structural integrity. Drvna industrija 68(1):53–60. https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/263383
Campshure B, Drane P, Sherwood J (2020) June. An Investigation of Maple Wood Baseball Bat Durability as a Function of Bat Profile Using LS-DYNA. In Proceedings of the 16th International LS-DYNA Users Conference (pp. 10–11). https://lsdyna.ansys.com/16th-international-ls-dyna-conference/
Choi D, Thorpe JL, Hanna RB (1991) Image analysis to measure strain in wood and paper. Wood Science And Technology 25(4):251–262. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00225465
Czech Technical Standard (1979) ČSN 490115. Wood: Determination of ultimate strength in flexure tests. https://eshop.agentura-cas.cz/Detailnormy.aspx?k=4257
Czech Technical Standard (1979) ČSN 490117. Wood: Impact strength in flexure. https://eshop.agentura-cas.cz/Detailnormy.aspx?k=4259
Clauß S, Pescatore C, Niemz P (2014) Anisotropic elastic properties of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.). Holzforschung 68(8):941–949. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/hf-2013-0189/html
Dinulica F, Savin A, Stanciu MD (2023) Physical and acoustical properties of wavy grain sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) used for musical instruments. Forests 14(2):197. https://www.mdpi.com/2084164
Dobrowolska D, Hein S, Oosterbaan A, Wagner S, Clark J, Skovsgaard JP (2011) A review of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.): implications for silviculture. Forestry 84(2):133–148. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpr001
Fortin-Smith J, Sherwood J, Drane P, Kretschmann D (2016a) A Complementary Experimental and Modeling Approach for the Characterisation of Maple and Ash Wood Material Properties for the Bat/Ball Impact Modeling in LS-DYNA. In 14th International LS-DYNA Users Conference. https://lsdyna.ansys.com/14th-international-ls-dyna-conference/
Fortin-Smith J, Sherwood J, Drane P, Kretschmann D (2016b) Characterisation of maple and ash material properties as a function of wood density for bat/ball impact modeling in LS-DYNA. Procedia engineering 147:413–418. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705816307780
Fortin-Smith J, Sherwood J, Drane P, Kretschmann D (2018) Characterisation of maple and ash material properties for the finite element modeling of wood baseball bats. Appl Sci 8(11):2256. https://www.mdpi.com/366146
Gerhards CC (1977) Effect of duration and rate of loading on strength of wood and wood-based materials. USDA for serv research paper FPL 283, USDA For Serv Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, United States.
Gilman FE, Watson GD (1993) Acer pseudoplatanus L. Sycamore Maple, Fact Sheet ST-40, USA. https://doi.org/10.32473/EDIS-ST040-1993
Glass S, Zelinka S (2021) Moisture relations and physical properties of wood. Chapter 4 in FPL-GTR-282, pp.4–1.
Gutkowski RM, Shigidi AM, Peterson ML (2007) Dynamic impact load tests of a bridge guardrail system (No. MPC Report No. 07-188). Fargo: Mountain-Plains Consortium.
Hassan Vand M, Tippner J (2023) Impact bending strength of thermally-modified timber. Holzforschung 77(11–12):828–837. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/hf-2023-0046/html
Hassan Vand M, Tippner J (2024a) The effect of moisture content over the fibre saturation points on the impact strength of wood. R Soc Open Sci 11(2). https://royalsocietypublishing.org/rsos/article/11/2/231685/92484
Hassan Vand M, Tippner J (2024b) Effects of moisture content on the behaviour of Scots pine heartwood and sapwood under impact. J Wood Sci 70(1):39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-024-02152-2
Hassan Vand M, Tippner J, Brabec M (2024) Effects of species and moisture content on the behaviour of solid wood under impact. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 82(1):23–34. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00107-023-01986-9
Iliev N, Varbeva L, Alexandrov N (2022) Silvicultural aspects of the sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) propagation–Overview. Silva Balc 23(1):37–55. https://silvabalcanica.pensoft.net/article/82756/download/pdf/
Kielmann BC, Militz H, Mai C, Adamopoulos S (2013) Strength changes in ash, beech and maple wood modified with a N-methylol melamine compound and a metal-complex dye. Wood Res 58(3):343–350. www.woodresearch.sk/wr/201303/02.pdf
Keunecke D, Novosseletz K, Lanvermann C, Mannes D, Niemz P (2012) Combination of X-ray and digital image correlation for the analysis of moisture-induced strain in wood: opportunities and challenges. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 70(4):407–413. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00107-011-0573-8
Kollmann FFP, Côté WA (1968) Principles of Wood Science and Technology: I Solid Wood. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87928-9
Kretschmann D (2010) Mechanical properties of wood. Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material: chapter 5. Centennial ed. General technical report FPL; GTR-190. Madison, WI: US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory: p. 5.1–5.46., 190, pp.5–1. https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/62243
Liu D, Chen Y (2010) The impact behavior of ecofriendly cellulosic fiber-based packaging composites. Wood Fiber Sci 42(4):460–466. https://wfs.swst.org/index.php/wfs/article/view/499
Moreira AP, Silveira ED, Almeida DHD, Almeida THD, Panzera TH, Christoforo AL, Rocco FA (2017) Toughness and impact strength in dynamic bending of wood as a function of the modulus of elasticity and the strength in compression to the grain. Int J Mater Eng 7(4):61–67. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ijme.20170704.01
Niemz P, Clauss S, Michel F, Hansch D, Hansel A (2014) Physical and mechanical properties of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.). Wood Res 59(4):671–682. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850/90545
Olmedo I, Bourrier F, Bertrand D, Toe D, Berger F, Limam A (2015) Experimental analysis of the response of fresh wood stems subjected to localized impact loading. Wood Sci Technol 49:623–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-015-0713-0
Pan B, Qian K, Xie H, Asundi A (2009) Two-dimensional digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement: a review. Meas Sci Technol 20(6):062001. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/20/6/062001
Pasta S, de Rigo D, Caudullo G (2016) Acer pseudoplatanus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz J, de Rigo D, Caudullo G, Houston Durrant T, Mauri A (Eds), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Luxembourg: Publ. Off. EU, p.e01665a. https://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/en/european-atlas/
Pautasso M, Aas G, Queloz V, Holdenrieder O (2013) European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) dieback–A conservation biology challenge. Biol Conserv 158:37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.08.026.
Polocoșer T, Kasal B, Stöckel F (2017) State-of-the-art: intermediate and high strain rate testing of solid wood. Wood Sci Technol 51:1479–1534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-017-0925-6
Polocoşer T, Kasal B, Stöckel F, Li X (2018) Dynamic material properties of wood subjected to low-velocity impact. Mater Struct 51:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-018-1186-z
Polocoşer T, Stöckel F, Kasal B (2016) Low-velocity transverse impact of small, clear spruce and pine specimens with additional energy absorbing treatments. J Mater Civ Eng 28(8):04016048. https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001545
Sahraoui S, Lataillade JL (1998) Analysis of load oscillations in instrumented impact testing. Eng Fract Mech 60(4):437–446. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013794498000241
Sedlar T, Šefc B, Stojnić S, Sinković T (2021) Wood quality characterisation of sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and its utilisation in wood products industries. Croat J For Eng: Journal for Theory and Application of Forestry Engineering 42(3):543–560. https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/381464
Sell J (1968) Eigenschaften und Kenngrössen von Holzarten. Switzerland: Lignum, Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft für das Holz.
Sonderegger W, Martienssen A, Nitsche C, Ozyhar T, Kaliske M, Niemz P (2013) Investigations on the physical and mechanical behaviour of sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.). Eur J Wood Wood Prod 71(1):91–99. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00107-012-0641-8
Sutton MA, Orteu JJ, Schreier H (2009) Image correlation for shape, motion and deformation measurements: basic concepts, theory and applications. Springer Science & Business Media.
Thomas PA (2016) Biological flora of the British Isles: Fraxinus excelsior. J Ecol 104(4):1158–1209. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2745.12566
Tudor MP, Agnes MI, Szilard B (2011) Study of physical characteristics, mechanical and technological properties of wood species from the Fraxinus genus encountered in Romania compared to other main forestry species. Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, pp. 217–222. https://doi.org/10.31924/nrsd
Turnbull-Grimes C, Charlie WA, Gutkowski RM, Balogh J (2010) Bus-stop shelters: improved safety (phases 1 and 2). https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/18150
Von Wedel K (1964) Untersuchungen über Eigenschaften, Verwertung und Verwendung des Ahornholzes. Dissertation, Universität zu Göttingen.
Vacek S, Vacek Z, Kalousková I, Cukor J, Bílek L, Moser WK, Bulušek D, Podrázský V, Řeháček D (2018) Sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) stands on former agricultural land in the Sudetes–evaluation of ecological value and production potential. Dendrobiology (79):61–76. https://www.idpan.poznan.pl/pl/vol-79/79-61-76
Wagenführ R (2007) Holzatlas, 6th edn. Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig.
Yamada H, Tateyama K, Sasaki H, Naruke S, Kishimoto H, Yoshimoto M (2018) Impact resistance to ballistic ejecta of wooden buildings and a simple reinforcement method using aramid fabric. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 359:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.06.014
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Wood and Fiber Science
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
