Heart Shake in South African-Grown <i>Pinus Elliottii</i>
Keywords:
Heart shake, Pinus elliottiiAbstract
Heart shake, internal cracks in the radial and longitudinal planes of standing trees, is the most common and serious defect of South African-grown Pinus elliottii.
A series of experiments sampled immature and mature trees throughout the Eastern Transvaal region of South Africa. The objectives of these studies were to determine the distribution of heart shake within and among trees, whether the physical characteristics of the trees or any environmental factors were associated with heart shake, the age at which heart shake begins, and the factors that initiate heart shake.
Heart shake was found in all locations sampled. No physical characteristics of the trees or environmental factors could be associated with the incidence of heart shake, although the rate of growth and exposure to strong winds did influence the severity of heart shake in a tree. Within trees most of the heart shakes were located in the butt, extending downward into the stump. Heart shake is initiated in a tree by various types of wounding, particularly by mechanical damage during nursery and field planting stages. Damage to the root collar zone causes a point of weakness that enlarges longitudinally and radially into a heart shake as the tree grows. There is a possibility that there are genetic differences in the incidence of heart shake among families of Pinus elliottii. There are very large differences among trees in the severity of heart shake and the degree of resinosis associated with heart shake that cannot be presently explained.
References
Barnes, R. D., and L. J. Mullin. 1976. Selection of forest tree species in Rhodesia. S. Afr. For. J. 98:16-19.nChauret, G., and E. Perem. 1976. The development of microscopic separations in red pine and white spruce. IAWA Bulletin No. 1:4-8.nChristie, S. I., and N. B. Tallon. 1991. The influence of nursery and planting practice on the incidence of resin infiltrated heart shake in Pinus elliottii plantations in the Eastern Transvaal. S. Afr. For. J. Nr. 157:7-11.nDarrow, W. K. 1979. Silviculture of the southern pines in South Africa. J. Forestry 77(10):682-685.nDarrow, W. K. 1982. Heart shake in South African-grown Pinus elliottii Engelm: Its distribution and origin. Ph.D. thesis, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York.nDepartment of Environment Affairs. 1982. Report on commercial timber resources and primary round-wood processing in South Africa 1980/1. Compiled by Division of National Forestry Planning. Pretoria.nHillis, W. E., Y. Yazaki, and J. Bauch. 1976. The significance of anomalous extractives in heart-shakes in Dacrydium species. Wood Sci. Technol. 10:79-95.nKoehler, A. 1933. A new hypothesis as to the cause of shakes and rift cracks in green timber. J. Forestry 31: 551-556.nKönig, E. 1957. Fehler des Holzes. Holz-Zentralblatt Verlag, Stuttgart.nKrosigk, F. K. van. 1989. Research results reported. Forestry News 3/89. Dept. of Environment Affairs, Pretoria. Pp. 16-17.nKubler, H. 1983. Mechanism of frost crack formation in trees—A review and synthesis. Forest Sci. 29(3):559-568.nKrosigk, F. K. van. 1987. Growth stresses in trees and related wood properties. Forestry Abstr. 48(3): 131-189.nLaurens, H. C. 1977. Fundamental studies on the grading of coniferous sawlogs for the production of structural and industrial lumber. Ph.D. thesis, University of Stel-lenbosch. Stellenbosch, South Africa.nMalan, F. S., and A. M. de Villiers. 1976. Die Invloed van Radiale Harsgeinfiltreerde Kernskeure op die Ge-saagde Opbrengs uit Pinus elliottii Saagblokke. S. Afr. For. J. 97:47-57.nMayer-Wegelin, H. 1955. Spannungen und Span-nungsrisse im Holz des Stehenden und Gefällten Stammes. Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Gesell-schaft fur Holzforschung 7(2): 11-17.nMayer-Wegelin, H., and E. Mammen. 1954. Spannungen und Span-nungsrisse im Buchenstammholz. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung 125(9):287-297.nMcGinnes, E. A. 1968. Extent of shake in black walnut. Forest Prod. J. 18(5):80-82.nMcIntosh, J. A. and T. Szabo. 1972. Watch for these signs of white spruce heart shake. Canadian Forest Ind. 92(10):68-71.nMeyer, R. W., and L. Leney. 1968. Shake in coniferous wood—An anatomical study. Forest Prod. J. 18(2):51-56.nPanshin, A. J., and C. de Zeeuw. 1964. Textbook of wood technology, vol. I, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.nPoynton, R. J. 1979. Tree planting in southern Africa, vol. I: The pines. Dept. of Forestry. Gov't Printer. Pretoria, Rep. of South Africa.nQueensland Department of Forestry. Annual Reports for 1962, 1971, and 1975. Brisbane, Australia.nSachs, I. B. 1978. Paraquat-induced lightwood in red pine observed by scanning electron microscopy. Scanning Electron Microscopy 1978/II: 217-222 inForestry Abstracts 40(5): 1310.nScott, M. H. 1952. The quality of the wood of young trees of Pinus caribaea grown in South Africa. J. S. Afr. For. Assc. 22:38-47.nShigo, A. L. 1966. Decay and discoloration following logging wounds of northern hardwood. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper NE-47.nShigo, A. L. 1972. Ring and ray shakes associated with wounds in trees. Holzforschung 26(2):60-62.nSokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.nSmith, W. J. 1965. Incidence and cause of pitch streaks in Pinus elliottii Engelm. var. elliottii. Queensland For. Serv. Progress Report Proj. 3-2-4, Exper. 2.nStreets, R. J. 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Clarendon Press, Oxford.nvan der Syde, H. A. 1976. Resin-infiltrated heart shakes in Pinus elliottii in the Transvaal. S. Afr. For. J. 97:29-35.nVolkert, E. 1940. Das Schlifern der Kiefer: Untersuch-ungen über der Einfluss des Baumalters auf die Holzei-genschaften. Mitteil. aus Forstwirtschaft und Forstwissenschaft 11(3): 173-210.nWard, J. C., R. A. Hann, R. C. Baltes, and E. H. Bulgrin. 1972. Honeycomb and ring failures in bacterially infected red oak lumber after kiln drying. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper FPL 165.nWilhelmy, Y., and H. Kubler. 1973. Stresses and checks in log ends from relieved growth stresses. Wood Sci 6(2): 136-142.n
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
The copyright of an article published in Wood and Fiber Science is transferred to the Society of Wood Science and Technology (for U. S. Government employees: to the extent transferable), effective if and when the article is accepted for publication. This transfer grants the Society of Wood Science and Technology permission to republish all or any part of the article in any form, e.g., reprints for sale, microfiche, proceedings, etc. However, the authors reserve the following as set forth in the Copyright Law:
1. All proprietary rights other than copyright, such as patent rights.
2. The right to grant or refuse permission to third parties to republish all or part of the article or translations thereof. In the case of whole articles, such third parties must obtain Society of Wood Science and Technology written permission as well. However, the Society may grant rights with respect to Journal issues as a whole.
3. The right to use all or part of this article in future works of their own, such as lectures, press releases, reviews, text books, or reprint books.
